produced commodity. In amplifying and extending the written 
word, typography revealed and greatly extended the structure 
of writing. Today, with the cinema and the electric speed-up of 
information movement, the formal structure of the printed 
word, as of mechanism in general, stands forth like a branch 
washed up on the beach. A new medium is never an addition to 
an old one, nor does it leave the old one in peace. It never 
ceases to oppress the older media until it finds new shapes and 
positions for them. Manuscript culture had sustained an oral 
procedure in education that was called “scholasticism” at its 
higher levels; but by putting the same text in front of any given 
number of students or readers print ended the scholastic 
regime of oral disputation very quickly. Print provided a vast 
new memory for past writings that made a personal memory 
inadequate.